Pancreatic Adenocarcinoma, Version 2.2021, NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology

Authors:
Margaret A. TemperoUCSF Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center;

Search for other papers by Margaret A. Tempero in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Mokenge P. MalafaMoffitt Cancer Center;

Search for other papers by Mokenge P. Malafa in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Mahmoud Al-HawaryUniversity of Michigan Rogel Cancer Center;

Search for other papers by Mahmoud Al-Hawary in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Stephen W. BehrmanThe University of Tennessee Health Science Center;

Search for other papers by Stephen W. Behrman in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Al B. Benson IIIRobert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center of Northwestern University;

Search for other papers by Al B. Benson III in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Dana B. CardinVanderbilt-Ingram Cancer Center;

Search for other papers by Dana B. Cardin in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
E. Gabriela ChioreanFred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center/Seattle Cancer Care Alliance;

Search for other papers by E. Gabriela Chiorean in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Vincent ChungCity of Hope National Medical Center;

Search for other papers by Vincent Chung in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Brian CzitoDuke Cancer Institute;

Search for other papers by Brian Czito in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Marco Del ChiaroUniversity of Colorado Cancer Center;

Search for other papers by Marco Del Chiaro in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD, PhD
,
Mary DillhoffThe Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center - James Cancer Hospital and Solove Research Institute;

Search for other papers by Mary Dillhoff in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Timothy R. DonahueUCLA Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center;

Search for other papers by Timothy R. Donahue in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Efrat DotanFox Chase Cancer Center;

Search for other papers by Efrat Dotan in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Cristina R. FerroneMassachusetts General Hospital Cancer Center;

Search for other papers by Cristina R. Ferrone in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Christos FountzilasRoswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center;

Search for other papers by Christos Fountzilas in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Jeffrey HardacreCase Comprehensive Cancer Center/University Hospitals Seidman Cancer Center and Cleveland Clinic Taussig Cancer Institute;

Search for other papers by Jeffrey Hardacre in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
William G. HawkinsSiteman Cancer Center at Barnes-Jewish Hospital and Washington University School of Medicine;

Search for other papers by William G. Hawkins in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Kelsey KluteFred & Pamela Buffett Cancer Center;

Search for other papers by Kelsey Klute in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Andrew H. KoUCSF Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center;

Search for other papers by Andrew H. Ko in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
John W. KunstmanYale Cancer Center/Smilow Cancer Hospital;

Search for other papers by John W. Kunstman in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD, MHS
,
Noelle LoConteUniversity of Wisconsin Carbone Cancer Center;

Search for other papers by Noelle LoConte in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Andrew M. LowyUC San Diego Moores Cancer Center;

Search for other papers by Andrew M. Lowy in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Cassadie MoravekPancreatic Cancer Action Network;

Search for other papers by Cassadie Moravek in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
,
Eric K. NakakuraUCSF Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center;

Search for other papers by Eric K. Nakakura in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Amol K. NarangThe Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center at Johns Hopkins;

Search for other papers by Amol K. Narang in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Jorge ObandoDuke Cancer Institute;

Search for other papers by Jorge Obando in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Patricio M. PolancoUT Southwestern Simmons Comprehensive Cancer Center;

Search for other papers by Patricio M. Polanco in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Sushanth ReddyO’Neal Comprehensive Cancer Center at UAB;

Search for other papers by Sushanth Reddy in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Marsha ReyngoldMemorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center;

Search for other papers by Marsha Reyngold in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD, PhD
,
Courtney ScaifeHuntsman Cancer Institute at the University of Utah;

Search for other papers by Courtney Scaife in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Jeanne ShenStanford Cancer Institute;

Search for other papers by Jeanne Shen in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Charles Vollmer Jr.Abramson Cancer Center at the University of Pennsylvania;

Search for other papers by Charles Vollmer Jr. in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Robert A. WolffThe University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center;

Search for other papers by Robert A. Wolff in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Brian M. WolpinDana-Farber/Brigham and Women’s Cancer Center;

Search for other papers by Brian M. Wolpin in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD, MPH
,
Beth LynnNational Comprehensive Cancer Network.

Search for other papers by Beth Lynn in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 RN, BS, CMSRN
, and
Giby V. GeorgeNational Comprehensive Cancer Network.

Search for other papers by Giby V. George in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
Restricted access

Pancreatic cancer is the fourth leading cause of cancer-related death among men and women in the United States. A major challenge in treatment remains patients’ advanced disease at diagnosis. The NCCN Guidelines for Pancreatic Adenocarcinoma provides recommendations for the diagnosis, evaluation, treatment, and follow-up for patients with pancreatic cancer. Although survival rates remain relatively unchanged, newer modalities of treatment, including targeted therapies, provide hope for improving patient outcomes. Sections of the manuscript have been updated to be concordant with the most recent update to the guidelines. This manuscript focuses on the available systemic therapy approaches, specifically the treatment options for locally advanced and metastatic disease.

Table 1

Individual Disclosures for the NCCN Pancreatic Adenocarcinoma Panel

Table 1

  • Collapse
  • Expand
  • 1.

    Siegel RL, Miller KD, Fuchs HE, et al. Cancer statistics, 2021. CA Cancer J Clin 2021;71:733.

  • 2.

    Arnold LD, Patel AV, Yan Y, et al. Are racial disparities in pancreatic cancer explained by smoking and overweight/obesity? Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2009;18:23972405.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 3.

    Simard EP, Ward EM, Siegel R, et al. Cancers with increasing incidence trends in the United States: 1999 through 2008. CA Cancer J Clin 2012;62:118128.

  • 4.

    Eheman C, Henley SJ, Ballard-Barbash R, et al. Annual Report to the Nation on the status of cancer, 1975-2008, featuring cancers associated with excess weight and lack of sufficient physical activity. Cancer 2012;118:23382366.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 5.

    Smith BD, Smith GL, Hurria A, et al. Future of cancer incidence in the United States: burdens upon an aging, changing nation. J Clin Oncol 2009;27:27582765.

  • 6.

    StatBite. StatBite. U.S. pancreatic cancer rates. J Natl Cancer Inst 2010;102:1822.

  • 7.

    Worni M, Guller U, White RR, et al. Modest improvement in overall survival for patients with metastatic pancreatic cancer: a trend analysis using the surveillance, epidemiology, and end results registry from 1988 to 2008. Pancreas 2013;42:11571163.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 8.

    Visser BC, Ma Y, Zak Y, et al. Failure to comply with NCCN Guidelines for the management of pancreatic cancer compromises outcomes. HPB (Oxford) 2012;14:539547.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 9.

    Hoos WA, James PM, Rahib L, et al. Pancreatic cancer clinical trials and accrual in the United States. J Clin Oncol 2013;31:34323438.

  • 10.

    U.S. National Library of Medicine-Key MEDLINE® Indicators. Accessed July 24, 2014. Available at: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/bsd/bsd_key.html

  • 11.

    Anderson MA, Zolotarevsky E, Cooper KL, et al. Alcohol and tobacco lower the age of presentation in sporadic pancreatic cancer in a dose-dependent manner: a multicenter study. Am J Gastroenterol 2012;107:17301739.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 12.

    Bosetti C, Lucenteforte E, Silverman DT, et al. Cigarette smoking and pancreatic cancer: an analysis from the International Pancreatic Cancer Case-Control Consortium (Panc4). Ann Oncol 2012;23:18801888.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 13.

    Hassan MM, Bondy ML, Wolff RA, et al. Risk factors for pancreatic cancer: case-control study. Am J Gastroenterol 2007;102:26962707.

  • 14.

    Lynch SM, Vrieling A, Lubin JH, et al. Cigarette smoking and pancreatic cancer: a pooled analysis from the pancreatic cancer cohort consortium. Am J Epidemiol 2009;170:403413.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 15.

    Raimondi S, Maisonneuve P, Lowenfels AB. Epidemiology of pancreatic cancer: an overview. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2009;6:699708.

  • 16.

    Vrieling A, Bueno-de-Mesquita HB, Boshuizen HC, et al. Cigarette smoking, environmental tobacco smoke exposure and pancreatic cancer risk in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. Int J Cancer 2010;126:23942403.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 17.

    Mancuso TF, el-Attar AA. Cohort study of workers exposed to betanaphthylamine and benzidine. J Occup Med 1967;9:277285.

  • 18.

    Antwi SO, Eckert EC, Sabaque CV, et al. Exposure to environmental chemicals and heavy metals, and risk of pancreatic cancer. Cancer Causes Control 2015;26:15831591.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 19.

    Alsamarrai A, Das SL, Windsor JA, Petrov MS. Factors that affect risk for pancreatic disease in the general population: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2014;12:16351644.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 20.

    Lucenteforte E, La Vecchia C, Silverman D, et al. Alcohol consumption and pancreatic cancer: a pooled analysis in the International Pancreatic Cancer Case-Control Consortium (PanC4). Ann Oncol 2012;23:374382.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 21.

    Bagnardi V, Rota M, Botteri E, et al. Alcohol consumption and site-specific cancer risk: a comprehensive dose-response meta-analysis. Br J Cancer 2015;112:580593.

  • 22.

    Maisonneuve P, Amar S, Lowenfels AB. Periodontal disease, edentulism, and pancreatic cancer: a meta-analysis. Ann Oncol 2017;28:985995.

  • 23.

    Larsson SC, Orsini N, Wolk A. Body mass index and pancreatic cancer risk: A meta-analysis of prospective studies. Int J Cancer 2007;120:19931998.

  • 24.

    Li D, Morris JS, Liu J, et al. Body mass index and risk, age of onset, and survival in patients with pancreatic cancer. JAMA 2009;301:25532562.

  • 25.

    Patel AV, Rodriguez C, Bernstein L, et al. Obesity, recreational physical activity, and risk of pancreatic cancer in a large U.S. Cohort. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2005;14:459466.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 26.

    Genkinger JM, Kitahara CM, Bernstein L, et al. Central adiposity, obesity during early adulthood, and pancreatic cancer mortality in a pooled analysis of cohort studies. Ann Oncol 2015;26:22572266.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 27.

    Behrens G, Jochem C, Schmid D, et al. Physical activity and risk of pancreatic cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Epidemiol 2015;30:279298.

  • 28.

    Larsson SC, Wolk A. Red and processed meat consumption and risk of pancreatic cancer: meta-analysis of prospective studies. Br J Cancer 2012;106:603607.

  • 29.

    Thiébaut AC, Jiao L, Silverman DT, et al. Dietary fatty acids and pancreatic cancer in the NIH-AARP diet and health study. J Natl Cancer Inst 2009;101:10011011.

  • 30.

    Genkinger JM, Wang M, Li R, et al. Dairy products and pancreatic cancer risk: a pooled analysis of 14 cohort studies. Ann Oncol 2014;25:11061115.

  • 31.

    Rohrmann S, Linseisen J, Nöthlings U, et al. Meat and fish consumption and risk of pancreatic cancer: results from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. Int J Cancer 2013;132:617624.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 32.

    Wolpin BM, Ng K, Bao Y, et al. Plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D and risk of pancreatic cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2012;21:8291.

  • 33.

    Waterhouse M, Risch HA, Bosetti C, et al. Vitamin D and pancreatic cancer: a pooled analysis from the Pancreatic Cancer Case-Control Consortium. Ann Oncol 2015;26:17761783.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 34.

    Duell EJ, Lucenteforte E, Olson SH, et al. Pancreatitis and pancreatic cancer risk: a pooled analysis in the International Pancreatic Cancer Case-Control Consortium (PanC4). Ann Oncol 2012;23:29642970.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 35.

    Lowenfels AB, Maisonneuve P, Cavallini G, et al. Pancreatitis and the risk of pancreatic cancer. N Engl J Med 1993;328:14331437.

  • 36.

    Malka D, Hammel P, Maire F, et al. Risk of pancreatic adenocarcinoma in chronic pancreatitis. Gut 2002;51:849852.

  • 37.

    Munigala S, Kanwal F, Xian H, et al. Increased risk of pancreatic adenocarcinoma after acute pancreatitis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2014;12:11431150.e1.

  • 38.

    Bracci PM, Wang F, Hassan MM, et al. Pancreatitis and pancreatic cancer in two large pooled case-control studies. Cancer Causes Control 2009;20:17231731.

  • 39.

    Majumder S, Bockorny B, Baker WL, et al. Association between HBsAg positivity and pancreatic cancer: a meta-analysis. J Gastrointest Cancer 2014;45:347352.

  • 40.

    Seo MS, Yeo J, Hwang IC, et al. Risk of pancreatic cancer in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: a meta-analysis. Clin Rheumatol 2019;38:31093116.

  • 41.

    Chari ST, Leibson CL, Rabe KG, et al. Probability of pancreatic cancer following diabetes: a population-based study. Gastroenterology 2005;129:504511.

  • 42.

    Huang Y, Cai X, Qiu M, et al. Prediabetes and the risk of cancer: a meta-analysis. Diabetologia 2014;57:22612269.

  • 43.

    Liao WC, Tu YK, Wu MS, et al. Blood glucose concentration and risk of pancreatic cancer: systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis. BMJ 2015;350:g7371.

  • 44.

    Gullo L, Pezzilli R, Morselli-Labate AM.; Italian Pancreatic Cancer Study Group. Diabetes and the risk of pancreatic cancer. N Engl J Med 1994;331:8184.

  • 45.

    Gupta S, Vittinghoff E, Bertenthal D, et al. New-onset diabetes and pancreatic cancer. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2006;4:13661372., quiz 1301.

  • 46.

    Raghavan SR, Ballehaninna UK, Chamberlain RS. The impact of perioperative blood glucose levels on pancreatic cancer prognosis and surgical outcomes: an evidence-based review. Pancreas 2013;42:12101217.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 47.

    Rosa JA, Van Linda BM, Abourizk NN. New-onset diabetes mellitus as a harbinger of pancreatic carcinoma. A case report and literature review. J Clin Gastroenterol 1989;11:211215.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 48.

    Lee JH, Kim SA, Park HY, et al. New-onset diabetes patients need pancreatic cancer screening? J Clin Gastroenterol 2012;46:e58e61.

  • 49.

    Sah RP, Nagpal SJ, Mukhopadhyay D, et al. New insights into pancreatic cancer-induced paraneoplastic diabetes. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2013;10:423433.

  • 50.

    Elena JW, Steplowski E, Yu K, et al. Diabetes and risk of pancreatic cancer: a pooled analysis from the pancreatic cancer cohort consortium. Cancer Causes Control 2013;24:1325.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 51.

    Pezzilli R, Casadei R, Morselli-Labate AM. Is type 2 diabetes a risk factor for pancreatic cancer? JOP 2009;10:705706.

  • 52.

    Song S, Wang B, Zhang X, et al. Long-term diabetes mellitus is associated with an increased risk of pancreatic cancer: a meta-analysis. PLoS One 2015;10:e0134321.

  • 53.

    Bodmer M, Becker C, Meier C, et al. Use of antidiabetic agents and the risk of pancreatic cancer: a case-control analysis. Am J Gastroenterol 2012;107:620626.

  • 54.

    Li D, Yeung S-CJ, Hassan MM, et al. Antidiabetic therapies affect risk of pancreatic cancer. Gastroenterology 2009;137:482488.

  • 55.

    Singh S, Singh PP, Singh AG, et al. Anti-diabetic medications and risk of pancreatic cancer in patients with diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Gastroenterol 2013;108:510519., quiz 520.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 56.

    Franciosi M, Lucisano G, Lapice E, et al. Metformin therapy and risk of cancer in patients with type 2 diabetes: systematic review. PLoS One 2013;8:e71583.

  • 57.

    Soranna D, Scotti L, Zambon A, et al. Cancer risk associated with use of metformin and sulfonylurea in type 2 diabetes: a meta-analysis. Oncologist 2012;17:813822.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 58.

    Wang Z, Lai ST, Xie L, et al. Metformin is associated with reduced risk of pancreatic cancer in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2014;106:1926.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 59.

    Chaiteerakij R, Petersen GM, Bamlet WR, et al. Metformin use and survival of patients with pancreatic cancer: a cautionary lesson. J Clin Oncol 2016;34:18981904.

  • 60.

    Sadeghi N, Abbruzzese JL, Yeung SC, et al. Metformin use is associated with better survival of diabetic patients with pancreatic cancer. Clin Cancer Res 2012;18:29052912.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 61.

    Toriola AT, Stolzenberg-Solomon R, Dalidowitz L, et al. Diabetes and pancreatic cancer survival: a prospective cohort-based study. Br J Cancer 2014;111:181185.

  • 62.

    Hruban RH, Canto MI, Goggins M, et al. Update on familial pancreatic cancer. Adv Surg 2010;44:293311.

  • 63.

    Humphris JL, Johns AL, Simpson SH, et al. Clinical and pathologic features of familial pancreatic cancer. Cancer 2014;120:36693675.

  • 64.

    Lynch HT, Smyrk T, Kern SE, et al. Familial pancreatic cancer: a review. Semin Oncol 1996;23:251275.

  • 65.

    Wang W, Chen S, Brune KA, et al. PancPRO: risk assessment for individuals with a family history of pancreatic cancer. J Clin Oncol 2007;25:14171422.

  • 66.

    Catts ZA, Baig MK, Milewski B, et al. Statewide retrospective review of familial pancreatic cancer in Delaware, and frequency of genetic mutations in pancreatic cancer kindreds. Ann Surg Oncol 2016;23:17291735.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 67.

    Klein AP, Brune KA, Petersen GM, et al. Prospective risk of pancreatic cancer in familial pancreatic cancer kindreds. Cancer Res 2004;64:26342638.

  • 68.

    Brune KA, Lau B, Palmisano E, et al. Importance of age of onset in pancreatic cancer kindreds. J Natl Cancer Inst 2010;102:119126.

  • 69.

    Rainone M, Singh I, Salo-Mullen EE, et al. An emerging paradigm for germline testing in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma and immediate implications for clinical practice: a review. JAMA Oncol 2020;6:764771.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 70.

    Hemminki A, Markie D, Tomlinson I, et al. A serine/threonine kinase gene defective in Peutz-Jeghers syndrome. Nature 1998;391:184187.

  • 71.

    Jenne DE, Reimann H, Nezu J, et al. Peutz-Jeghers syndrome is caused by mutations in a novel serine threonine kinase. Nat Genet 1998;18:3843.

  • 72.

    Korsse SE, Harinck F, van Lier MG, et al. Pancreatic cancer risk in Peutz-Jeghers syndrome patients: a large cohort study and implications for surveillance. J Med Genet 2013;50:5964.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 73.

    Giardiello FM, Brensinger JD, Tersmette AC, et al. Very high risk of cancer in familial Peutz-Jeghers syndrome. Gastroenterology 2000;119:14471453.

  • 74.

    van Lier MG, Wagner A, Mathus-Vliegen EM, et al. High cancer risk in Peutz-Jeghers syndrome: a systematic review and surveillance recommendations. Am J Gastroenterol 2010;105:12581264., author reply 1265.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 75.

    Su GH, Hruban RH, Bansal RK, et al. Germline and somatic mutations of the STK11/LKB1 Peutz-Jeghers gene in pancreatic and biliary cancers. Am J Pathol 1999;154:18351840.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 76.

    Weiss FU. Pancreatic cancer risk in hereditary pancreatitis. Front Physiol 2014;5:70.

  • 77.

    Pagon RA, Adam MP, Ardinger HH, et al., (eds), Pancreatitis Overview. in GeneReviews(R). Seattle (WA). University of Washington, Seattle. 2014.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 78.

    Howes N, Lerch MM, Greenhalf W, et al. Clinical and genetic characteristics of hereditary pancreatitis in Europe. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2004;2:252261.

  • 79.

    Lowenfels AB, Maisonneuve P, DiMagno EP, et al. Hereditary pancreatitis and the risk of pancreatic cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1997;89:442446.

  • 80.

    Rebours V, Lévy P, Ruszniewski P. An overview of hereditary pancreatitis. Dig Liver Dis 2012;44:815.

  • 81.

    Whelan AJ, Bartsch D, Goodfellow PJ. Brief report: a familial syndrome of pancreatic cancer and melanoma with a mutation in the CDKN2 tumor-suppressor gene. N Engl J Med 1995;333:975977.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 82.

    de Snoo FA, Bishop DT, Bergman W, et al. Increased risk of cancer other than melanoma in CDKN2A founder mutation (p16-Leiden)-positive melanoma families. Clin Cancer Res 2008;14:71517157.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 83.

    Vasen HF, Gruis NA, Frants RR, et al. Risk of developing pancreatic cancer in families with familial atypical multiple mole melanoma associated with a specific 19 deletion of p16 (p16-Leiden). Int J Cancer 2000;87:809811.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 84.

    Lynch HT, Brand RE, Hogg D, et al. Phenotypic variation in eight extended CDKN2A germline mutation familial atypical multiple mole melanoma-pancreatic carcinoma-prone families: the familial atypical mole melanoma-pancreatic carcinoma syndrome. Cancer 2002;94:8496.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 85.

    Aaltonen LA, Salovaara R, Kristo P, et al. Incidence of hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer and the feasibility of molecular screening for the disease. N Engl J Med 1998;338:14811487.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 86.

    Lindor NM, Petersen GM, Spurdle AB, et al. Pancreatic cancer and a novel MSH2 germline alteration. Pancreas 2011;40:11381140.

  • 87.

    Lynch HT, de la Chapelle A. Hereditary colorectal cancer. N Engl J Med 2003;348:919932.

  • 88.

    Hampel H, Frankel WL, Martin E, et al. Screening for the Lynch syndrome (hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer). N Engl J Med 2005;352:18511860.

  • 89.

    Hampel H, Frankel WL, Martin E, et al. Feasibility of screening for Lynch syndrome among patients with colorectal cancer. J Clin Oncol 2008;26:57835788.

  • 90.

    Boland CR, Goel A. Microsatellite instability in colorectal cancer. Gastroenterology 2010;138:20732087.e3.

  • 91.

    Kastrinos F, Mukherjee B, Tayob N, et al. Risk of pancreatic cancer in families with Lynch syndrome. JAMA 2009;302:17901795.

  • 92.

    Win AK, Young JP, Lindor NM, et al. Colorectal and other cancer risks for carriers and noncarriers from families with a DNA mismatch repair gene mutation: a prospective cohort study. J Clin Oncol 2012;30:958964.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 93.

    Hu C, Hart SN, Bamlet WR, et al. Prevalence of pathogenic mutations in cancer predisposition genes among pancreatic cancer patients. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2016;25:207211.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 94.

    Breast Cancer Linkage Consortium. Cancer risks in BRCA2 mutation carriers. J Natl Cancer Inst 1999;91:13101316.

  • 95.

    Al-Sukhni W, Rothenmund H, Borgida AE, et al. Germline BRCA1 mutations predispose to pancreatic adenocarcinoma. Hum Genet 2008;124:271278.

  • 96.

    Ferrone CR, Levine DA, Tang LH, et al. BRCA germline mutations in Jewish patients with pancreatic adenocarcinoma. J Clin Oncol 2009;27:433438.

  • 97.

    Hahn SA, Greenhalf B, Ellis I, et al. BRCA2 germline mutations in familial pancreatic carcinoma. J Natl Cancer Inst 2003;95:214221.

  • 98.

    Iqbal J, Ragone A, Lubinski J, et al. The incidence of pancreatic cancer in BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers. Br J Cancer 2012;107:20052009.

  • 99.

    van Asperen CJ, Brohet RM, Meijers-Heijboer EJ, et al. Cancer risks in BRCA2 families: estimates for sites other than breast and ovary. J Med Genet 2005;42:711719.

  • 100.

    Zhen DB, Rabe KG, Gallinger S, et al. BRCA1, BRCA2, PALB2, and CDKN2A mutations in familial pancreatic cancer: a PACGENE study. Genet Med 2015;17:569577.

  • 101.

    Liede A, Karlan BY, Narod SA. Cancer risks for male carriers of germline mutations in BRCA1 or BRCA2: a review of the literature. J Clin Oncol 2004;22:735742.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 102.

    Holter S, Borgida A, Dodd A, et al. Germline BRCA mutations in a large clinic-based cohort of patients with pancreatic adenocarcinoma. J Clin Oncol 2015;33:31243129.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 103.

    Lucas AL, Frado LE, Hwang C, et al. BRCA1 and BRCA2 germline mutations are frequently demonstrated in both high-risk pancreatic cancer screening and pancreatic cancer cohorts. Cancer 2014;120:19601967.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 104.

    Salo-Mullen EE, O’Reilly EM, Kelsen DP, et al. Identification of germline genetic mutations in patients with pancreatic cancer. Cancer 2015;121:43824388.

  • 105.

    Couch FJ, Johnson MR, Rabe K, et al. Germ line Fanconi anemia complementation group C mutations and pancreatic cancer. Cancer Res 2005;65:383386.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 106.

    Slater EP, Langer P, Niemczyk E, et al. PALB2 mutations in European familial pancreatic cancer families. Clin Genet 2010;78:490494.

  • 107.

    van der Heijden MS, Yeo CJ, Hruban RH, et al. Fanconi anemia gene mutations in young-onset pancreatic cancer. Cancer Res 2003;63:25852588.

  • 108.

    Roberts NJ, Jiao Y, Yu J, et al. ATM mutations in patients with hereditary pancreatic cancer. Cancer Discov 2012;2:4146.

  • 109.

    Syngal S, Brand RE, Church JM, et al. ACG clinical guideline: Genetic testing and management of hereditary gastrointestinal cancer syndromes. Am J Gastroenterol 2015;110:223262., quiz 263.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 110.

    Clores MJ, Thosani A, Buscaglia JM. Multidisciplinary diagnostic and therapeutic approaches to pancreatic cystic lesions. J Multidiscip Healthc 2014;7:8191.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 111.

    Farrell JJ, Fernández-del Castillo C. Pancreatic cystic neoplasms: management and unanswered questions. Gastroenterology 2013;144:13031315.

  • 112.

    Law JK, Hruban RH, Lennon AM. Management of pancreatic cysts: a multidisciplinary approach. Curr Opin Gastroenterol 2013;29:509516.

  • 113.

    Tanaka M, Fernández-del Castillo C, Adsay V, et al. International consensus guidelines 2012 for the management of IPMN and MCN of the pancreas. Pancreatology 2012;12:183197.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 114.

    Tanaka M, Fernández-Del Castillo C, Kamisawa T, et al. Revisions of international consensus Fukuoka guidelines for the management of IPMN of the pancreas. Pancreatology 2017;17:738753.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 115.

    Del Chiaro M, Verbeke C, Salvia R, et al. European experts consensus statement on cystic tumours of the pancreas. Dig Liver Dis 2013;45:703711.

  • 116.

    Ychou M, Conroy T, Seitz JF, et al. An open phase I study assessing the feasibility of the triple combination: oxaliplatin plus irinotecan plus leucovorin/ 5-fluorouracil every 2 weeks in patients with advanced solid tumors. Ann Oncol 2003;14:481489.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 117.

    Conroy T, Paillot B, François E, et al. Irinotecan plus oxaliplatin and leucovorin-modulated fluorouracil in advanced pancreatic cancer--a Groupe Tumeurs Digestives of the Federation Nationale des Centres de Lutte Contre le Cancer study. J Clin Oncol 2005;23:12281236.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 118.

    Ychou M, Desseigne F, Guimbaud R, et al. Randomized phase II trial comparing folfirinox (5FU/leucovorin [LV], irinotecan [I] and oxaliplatin [O]) vs gemcitabine (G) as first-line treatment of metastatic pancreatic adenocarcinoma (MPA). First results of the ACCORD 11 trial [abstract]. J Clin Oncol 2007;25 (June 20 Suppl):4516.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 119.

    Conroy T, Desseigne F, Ychou M, et al. FOLFIRINOX versus gemcitabine for metastatic pancreatic cancer. N Engl J Med 2011;364:18171825.

  • 120.

    Peixoto RD, Ho M, Renouf DJ, et al. Eligibility of metastatic pancreatic cancer patients for first-line palliative intent nab-paclitaxel plus gemcitabine versus FOLFIRINOX. Am J Clin Oncol 2015.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 121.

    Suker M, Beumer BR, Sadot E, et al. FOLFIRINOX for locally advanced pancreatic cancer: a systematic review and patient-level meta-analysis. Lancet Oncol 2016;17:801810.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 122.

    Sadot E, Doussot A, O’Reilly EM, et al. FOLFIRINOX induction therapy for stage 3 pancreatic adenocarcinoma. Ann Surg Oncol 2015;22:35123521.

  • 123.

    Gourgou-Bourgade S, Bascoul-Mollevi C, Desseigne F, et al. Impact of FOLFIRINOX compared with gemcitabine on quality of life in patients with metastatic pancreatic cancer: results from the PRODIGE 4/ACCORD 11 randomized trial. J Clin Oncol 2013;31:2329.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 124.

    Lowery MA, Yu KH, Adel NG, et al. Activity of front-line FOLFIRINOX (FFX) in stage III/IV pancreatic adenocarcinoma (PC) at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center (MSKCC) [abstract]. ASCO Meeting Abstracts 2012;30:4057.

    • Crossref
    • Export Citation
  • 125.

    Stein SM, James ES, Deng Y, et al. Final analysis of a phase II study of modified FOLFIRINOX in locally advanced and metastatic pancreatic cancer. Br J Cancer 2016;114:737743.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 126.

    Burris HA III, Moore MJ, Andersen J, et al. Improvements in survival and clinical benefit with gemcitabine as first-line therapy for patients with advanced pancreas cancer: a randomized trial. J Clin Oncol 1997;15:24032413.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 127.

    Oettle H, Post S, Neuhaus P, et al. Adjuvant chemotherapy with gemcitabine vs observation in patients undergoing curative-intent resection of pancreatic cancer: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2007;297:267277.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 128.

    Oettle H, Neuhaus P, Hochhaus A, et al. Adjuvant chemotherapy with gemcitabine and long-term outcomes among patients with resected pancreatic cancer: the CONKO-001 randomized trial. JAMA 2013;310:14731481.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 129.

    Mackey JR, Mani RS, Selner M, et al. Functional nucleoside transporters are required for gemcitabine influx and manifestation of toxicity in cancer cell lines. Cancer Res 1998;58:43494357.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 130.

    Farrell JJ, Elsaleh H, Garcia M, et al. Human equilibrative nucleoside transporter 1 levels predict response to gemcitabine in patients with pancreatic cancer. Gastroenterology 2009;136:187195.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 131.

    Greenhalf W, Ghaneh P, Neoptolemos JP, et al. Pancreatic cancer hENT1 expression and survival from gemcitabine in patients from the ESPAC-3 trial. J Natl Cancer Inst 2014;106:djt347.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 132.

    Liu ZQ, Han YC, Zhang X, et al. Prognostic value of human equilibrative nucleoside transporter1 in pancreatic cancer receiving gemcitabin-based chemotherapy: a meta-analysis. PLoS One 2014;9:e87103.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 133.

    Marechal R, Bachet JB, Mackey JR, et al. Levels of gemcitabine transport and metabolism proteins predict survival times of patients treated with gemcitabine for pancreatic adenocarcinoma. Gastroenterology 2012;143:664674 e661-666.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 134.

    Saif MW, Lee Y, Kim R. Harnessing gemcitabine metabolism: a step towards personalized medicine for pancreatic cancer. Ther Adv Med Oncol 2012;4:341346.

  • 135.

    Zhu Y, Qi M, Lao L, et al. Human equilibrative nucleoside transporter 1 predicts survival in patients with pancreatic cancer treated with gemcitabine: a meta-analysis. Genet Test Mol Biomarkers 2014;18:306312.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 136.

    Bird NT, Elmasry M, Jones R, et al. Immunohistochemical hENT1 expression as a prognostic biomarker in patients with resected pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma undergoing adjuvant gemcitabine-based chemotherapy. Br J Surg 2017;104:328336.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 137.

    Ormanns S, Heinemann V, Raponi M, et al. Human equilibrative nucleoside transporter 1 is not predictive for gemcitabine efficacy in advanced pancreatic cancer: translational results from the AIO-PK0104 phase III study with the clone SP120 rabbit antibody. Eur J Cancer 2014;50:18911899.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 138.

    Sinn M, Riess H, Sinn BV, et al. Human equilibrative nucleoside transporter 1 expression analysed by the clone SP 120 rabbit antibody is not predictive in patients with pancreatic cancer treated with adjuvant gemcitabine - Results from the CONKO-001 trial. Eur J Cancer 2015;51:15461554.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 139.

    Grunewald R, Abbruzzese JL, Tarassoff P, et al. Saturation of 2′,2′-difluorodeoxycytidine 5′-triphosphate accumulation by mononuclear cells during a phase I trial of gemcitabine. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol 1991;27:258262.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 140.

    Tempero M, Plunkett W, Ruiz Van Haperen V, et al. Randomized phase II comparison of dose-intense gemcitabine: thirty-minute infusion and fixed dose rate infusion in patients with pancreatic adenocarcinoma. J Clin Oncol 2003;21:34023408.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 141.

    Poplin E, Feng Y, Berlin J, et al. Phase III, randomized study of gemcitabine and oxaliplatin versus gemcitabine (fixed-dose rate infusion) compared with gemcitabine (30-minute infusion) in patients with pancreatic carcinoma E6201: a trial of the Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group. J Clin Oncol 2009;27:37783785.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 142.

    Demols A, Peeters M, Polus M, et al. Gemcitabine and oxaliplatin (GEMOX) in gemcitabine refractory advanced pancreatic adenocarcinoma: a phase II study. Br J Cancer 2006;94:481485.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 143.

    Fine RL, Fogelman DR, Schreibman SM, et al. The gemcitabine, docetaxel, and capecitabine (GTX) regimen for metastatic pancreatic cancer: a retrospective analysis. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol 2008;61:167175.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 144.

    Ko AH, Espinoza AM, Jones KA, et al. Optimizing the administration of fixed-dose rate gemcitabine plus capecitabine using an alternating-week schedule: a dose finding and early efficacy study in advanced pancreatic and biliary carcinomas. Am J Clin Oncol 2012;35:411417.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 145.

    Berlin JD, Catalano P, Thomas JP, et al. Phase III study of gemcitabine in combination with fluorouracil versus gemcitabine alone in patients with advanced pancreatic carcinoma: Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group Trial E2297. J Clin Oncol 2002;20:32703275.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 146.

    Colucci G, Giuliani F, Gebbia V, et al. Gemcitabine alone or with cisplatin for the treatment of patients with locally advanced and/or metastatic pancreatic carcinoma: a prospective, randomized phase III study of the Gruppo Oncologia dell’Italia Meridionale. Cancer 2002;94:902910.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 147.

    Colucci G, Labianca R, Di Costanzo F, et al. Randomized phase III trial of gemcitabine plus cisplatin compared with single-agent gemcitabine as first-line treatment of patients with advanced pancreatic cancer: the GIP-1 study. J Clin Oncol 2010;28:16451651.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 148.

    Cunningham D, Chau I, Stocken DD, et al. Phase III randomized comparison of gemcitabine versus gemcitabine plus capecitabine in patients with advanced pancreatic cancer. J Clin Oncol 2009;27:55135518.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 149.

    Heinemann V, Boeck S, Hinke A, et al. Meta-analysis of randomized trials: evaluation of benefit from gemcitabine-based combination chemotherapy applied in advanced pancreatic cancer. BMC Cancer 2008;8:8282.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 150.

    Heinemann V, Quietzsch D, Gieseler F, et al. Randomized phase III trial of gemcitabine plus cisplatin compared with gemcitabine alone in advanced pancreatic cancer. J Clin Oncol 2006;24:39463952.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 151.

    Heinemann V, Labianca R, Hinke A, et al. Increased survival using platinum analog combined with gemcitabine as compared to single-agent gemcitabine in advanced pancreatic cancer: pooled analysis of two randomized trials, the GERCOR/GISCAD intergroup study and a German multicenter study. Ann Oncol 2007;18:16521659.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 152.

    Herrmann R, Bodoky G, Ruhstaller T, et al. Gemcitabine plus capecitabine compared with gemcitabine alone in advanced pancreatic cancer: a randomized, multicenter, phase III trial of the Swiss Group for Clinical Cancer Research and the Central European Cooperative Oncology Group. J Clin Oncol 2007;25:22122217.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 153.

    Louvet C, Labianca R, Hammel P, et al. Gemcitabine in combination with oxaliplatin compared with gemcitabine alone in locally advanced or metastatic pancreatic cancer: results of a GERCOR and GISCAD phase III trial. J Clin Oncol 2005;23:35093516.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 154.

    Reni M, Cordio S, Milandri C, et al. Gemcitabine versus cisplatin, epirubicin, fluorouracil, and gemcitabine in advanced pancreatic cancer: a randomised controlled multicentre phase III trial. Lancet Oncol 2005;6:369376.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 155.

    Rocha Lima CM, Green MR, Rotche R, et al. Irinotecan plus gemcitabine results in no survival advantage compared with gemcitabine monotherapy in patients with locally advanced or metastatic pancreatic cancer despite increased tumor response rate. J Clin Oncol 2004;22:37763783.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 156.

    Ciliberto D, Botta C, Correale P, et al. Role of gemcitabine-based combination therapy in the management of advanced pancreatic cancer: a meta-analysis of randomised trials. Eur J Cancer 2013;49:593603.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 157.

    Sun C, Ansari D, Andersson R, et al. Does gemcitabine-based combination therapy improve the prognosis of unresectable pancreatic cancer? World J Gastroenterol 2012;18:49444958.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 158.

    Kulke MH, Tempero MA, Niedzwiecki D, et al. Randomized phase II study of gemcitabine administered at a fixed dose rate or in combination with cisplatin, docetaxel, or irinotecan in patients with metastatic pancreatic cancer: CALGB 89904. J Clin Oncol 2009;27:55065512.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 159.

    Stathopoulos GP, Syrigos K, Aravantinos G, et al. A multicenter phase III trial comparing irinotecan-gemcitabine (IG) with gemcitabine (G) monotherapy as first-line treatment in patients with locally advanced or metastatic pancreatic cancer. Br J Cancer 2006;95:587592.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 160.

    Gonçalves A, Gilabert M, François E, et al. BAYPAN study: a double-blind phase III randomized trial comparing gemcitabine plus sorafenib and gemcitabine plus placebo in patients with advanced pancreatic cancer. Ann Oncol 2012;23:27992805.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 161.

    Von Hoff DD, Ramanathan RK, Borad MJ, et al. Gemcitabine plus nab-paclitaxel is an active regimen in patients with advanced pancreatic cancer: a phase I/II trial. J Clin Oncol 2011;29:45484554.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 162.

    Von Hoff DD, Ervin T, Arena FP, et al. Increased survival in pancreatic cancer with nab-paclitaxel plus gemcitabine. N Engl J Med 2013;369:16911703.

  • 163.

    Chiorean EG, Von Hoff DD, Reni M, et al. CA19-9 decrease at 8 weeks as a predictor of overall survival in a randomized phase III trial (MPACT) of weekly nab-paclitaxel plus gemcitabine versus gemcitabine alone in patients with metastatic pancreatic cancer. Ann Oncol 2016;27:654660.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 164.

    Ramanathan RK, Goldstein D, Korn RL, et al. Positron emission tomography response evaluation from a randomized phase III trial of weekly nab-paclitaxel plus gemcitabine versus gemcitabine alone for patients with metastatic adenocarcinoma of the pancreas. Ann Oncol 2016;27:648653.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 165.

    Goldstein D, Von Hoff DD, Moore M, et al. Development of peripheral neuropathy and its association with survival during treatment with nab-paclitaxel plus gemcitabine for patients with metastatic adenocarcinoma of the pancreas: A subset analysis from a randomised phase III trial (MPACT). Eur J Cancer 2016;52:8591.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 166.

    Goldstein D, El-Maraghi RH, Hammel P, et al. nab-Paclitaxel plus gemcitabine for metastatic pancreatic cancer: long-term survival from a phase III trial. J Natl Cancer Inst 2015;107:107.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 167.

    Tabernero J, Chiorean EG, Infante JR, et al. Prognostic factors of survival in a randomized phase III trial (MPACT) of weekly nab-paclitaxel plus gemcitabine versus gemcitabine alone in patients with metastatic pancreatic cancer. Oncologist 2015;20:143150.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 168.

    Buccheri G, Ferrigno D, Tamburini M. Karnofsky and ECOG performance status scoring in lung cancer: a prospective, longitudinal study of 536 patients from a single institution. Eur J Cancer 1996;32A:11351141.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 169.

    Ma C, Bandukwala S, Burman D, et al. Interconversion of three measures of performance status: an empirical analysis. Eur J Cancer 2010;46:31753183.

  • 170.

    Golan T, Kanji ZS, Epelbaum R, et al. Overall survival and clinical characteristics of pancreatic cancer in BRCA mutation carriers. Br J Cancer 2014;111:11321138.

  • 171.

    Majdak EJ, Debniak J, Milczek T, et al. Prognostic impact of BRCA1 pathogenic and BRCA1/BRCA2 unclassified variant mutations in patients with ovarian carcinoma. Cancer 2005;104:10041012.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 172.

    Stefansson OA, Jonasson JG, Johannsson OT, et al. Genomic profiling of breast tumours in relation to BRCA abnormalities and phenotypes. Breast Cancer Res 2009;11:R47.

  • 173.

    Oliver GR, Sugar E, Laheru D, et al. Family history of cancer and sensitivity to platinum chemotherapy in pancreatic adenocarcinoma [abstract]. Gastrointestinal Cancers Symposium 2010:180.

  • 174.

    Lowery MA, Kelsen DP, Stadler ZK, et al. An emerging entity: pancreatic adenocarcinoma associated with a known BRCA mutation: clinical descriptors, treatment implications, and future directions. Oncologist 2011;16:13971402.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 175.

    Moore MJ, Goldstein D, Hamm J, et al. Erlotinib plus gemcitabine compared with gemcitabine alone in patients with advanced pancreatic cancer: a phase III trial of the National Cancer Institute of Canada Clinical Trials Group. J Clin Oncol 2007;25:19601966.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 176.

    Philip PA, Benedetti J, Corless CL, et al. Phase III study comparing gemcitabine plus cetuximab versus gemcitabine in patients with advanced pancreatic adenocarcinoma: Southwest Oncology Group-directed intergroup trial S0205. J Clin Oncol 2010;28:36053610.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 177.

    Kindler HL, Niedzwiecki D, Hollis D, et al. Gemcitabine plus bevacizumab compared with gemcitabine plus placebo in patients with advanced pancreatic cancer: phase III trial of the Cancer and Leukemia Group B (CALGB 80303). J Clin Oncol 2010;28:36173622.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 178.

    Kindler HL, Ioka T, Richel DJ, et al. Axitinib plus gemcitabine versus placebo plus gemcitabine in patients with advanced pancreatic adenocarcinoma: a double-blind randomised phase 3 study. Lancet Oncol 2011;12:256262.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 179.

    Van Cutsem E, Vervenne WL, Bennouna J, et al. Phase III trial of bevacizumab in combination with gemcitabine and erlotinib in patients with metastatic pancreatic cancer. J Clin Oncol 2009;27:22312237.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 180.

    Aranda E, Manzano JL, Rivera F, et al. Phase II open-label study of erlotinib in combination with gemcitabine in unresectable and/or metastatic adenocarcinoma of the pancreas: relationship between skin rash and survival (Pantar study). Ann Oncol 2012;23:19191925.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 181.

    Stepanski EJ, Reyes C, Walker MS, et al. The association of rash severity with overall survival: findings from patients receiving erlotinib for pancreatic cancer in the community setting. Pancreas 2013;42:3236.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 182.

    Lee HS, Chung MJ, Park JY, et al. A randomized, multicenter, phase III study of gemcitabine combined with capecitabine versus gemcitabine alone as first-line chemotherapy for advanced pancreatic cancer in South Korea. Medicine (Baltimore) 2017;96:e5702.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 183.

    Li Q, Yan H, Liu W, et al. Efficacy and safety of gemcitabine-fluorouracil combination therapy in the management of advanced pancreatic cancer: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. PLoS One 2014;9:e104346.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 184.

    De Jesus-Acosta A, Oliver GR, Blackford A, et al. A multicenter analysis of GTX chemotherapy in patients with locally advanced and metastatic pancreatic adenocarcinoma. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol 2012;69:415424.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 185.

    Petrioli R, Roviello G, Fiaschi AI, et al. Gemcitabine, oxaliplatin, and capecitabine (GEMOXEL) compared with gemcitabine alone in metastatic pancreatic cancer: a randomized phase II study. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol 2015;75:683690.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 186.

    Trouilloud I, Dupont-Gossard AC, Malka D, et al. Fixed-dose rate gemcitabine alone or alternating with FOLFIRI.3 (irinotecan, leucovorin and fluorouracil) in the first-line treatment of patients with metastatic pancreatic adenocarcinoma: an AGEO randomised phase II study (FIRGEM). Eur J Cancer 2014;50:31163124.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 187.

    Yanagimoto H, Ishii H, Nakai Y, et al. Improved survival with combined gemcitabine and S-1 for locally advanced pancreatic cancer: pooled analysis of three randomized studies. J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Sci 2014;21:761766.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 188.

    Li Y, Sun J, Jiang Z, et al. Gemcitabine and S-1 combination chemotherapy versus gemcitabine alone for locally advanced and metastatic pancreatic cancer: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials in Asia. J Chemother 2015;27:227234.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 189.

    Yamaue H, Shimizu A, Hagiwara Y, et al. Multicenter, randomized, open-label Phase II study comparing S-1 alternate-day oral therapy with the standard daily regimen as a first-line treatment in patients with unresectable advanced pancreatic cancer. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol 2017;79:813823.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 190.

    Boeck S, Vehling-Kaiser U, Waldschmidt D, et al. Erlotinib 150 mg daily plus chemotherapy in advanced pancreatic cancer: an interim safety analysis of a multicenter, randomized, cross-over phase III trial of the ‘Arbeitsgemeinschaft Internistische Onkologie’. Anticancer Drugs 2010;21:94100.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 191.

    Cartwright TH, Cohn A, Varkey JA, et al. Phase II study of oral capecitabine in patients with advanced or metastatic pancreatic cancer. J Clin Oncol 2002;20:160164.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 192.

    Pelzer U, Schwaner I, Stieler J, et al. Best supportive care (BSC) versus oxaliplatin, folinic acid and 5-fluorouracil (OFF) plus BSC in patients for second-line advanced pancreatic cancer: a phase III-study from the German CONKO-study group. Eur J Cancer 2011;47:16761681.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 193.

    Xiong HQ, Varadhachary GR, Blais JC, et al. Phase 2 trial of oxaliplatin plus capecitabine (XELOX) as second-line therapy for patients with advanced pancreatic cancer. Cancer 2008;113:20462052.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 194.

    Kaufman B, Shapira-Frommer R, Schmutzler RK, et al. Olaparib monotherapy in patients with advanced cancer and a germline BRCA1/2 mutation. J Clin Oncol 2015;33:244250.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 195.

    Golan T, Hammel P, Reni M, et al. Maintenance olaparib for germline BRCA-mutated metastatic pancreatic cancer. N Engl J Med 2019;381:317327.

  • 196.

    Rahma OE, Duffy A, Liewehr DJ, et al. Second-line treatment in advanced pancreatic cancer: a comprehensive analysis of published clinical trials. Ann Oncol 2013;24:19721979.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 197.

    Maisey N, Chau I, Cunningham D, et al. Multicenter randomized phase III trial comparing protracted venous infusion (PVI) fluorouracil (5-FU) with PVI 5-FU plus mitomycin in inoperable pancreatic cancer. J Clin Oncol 2002;20:31303136.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 198.

    Chiorean EG, Von Hoff DD, Tabernero J, et al. Second-line therapy after nab-paclitaxel plus gemcitabine or after gemcitabine for patients with metastatic pancreatic cancer. Br J Cancer 2016;115:e13.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 199.

    Pelzer U, Kubica K, Stieler J, et al. A randomized trial in patients with gemcitabine refractory pancreatic cancer. Final results of the CONKO 003 study [abstract]. J Clin Oncol 2008;26 (May 20 suppl):4508.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 200.

    Saif MW. New developments in the treatment of pancreatic cancer. Highlights from the “44th ASCO Annual Meeting”. Chicago, IL, USA. May 30 - June 3, 2008. JOP 2008;9:391397.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 201.

    Oettle H, Riess H, Stieler JM, et al. Second-line oxaliplatin, folinic acid, and fluorouracil versus folinic acid and fluorouracil alone for gemcitabine-refractory pancreatic cancer: outcomes from the CONKO-003 trial. J Clin Oncol 2014;32:24232429.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 202.

    Gill S, Ko YJ, Cripps C, et al. PANCREOX: a randomized phase III study of 5-fluorouracil/leucovorin with or without oxaliplatin for second-line advanced pancreatic cancer in patients who have received gemcitabine-based chemotherapy. J Clin Oncol 2016;34:39143920.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 203.

    Uccello M, Moschetta M, Arkenau HT. Second-line combination therapies in pancreatic cancer: where are we now? J Clin Oncol 2017;35:13701371.

  • 204.

    Chung V, McDonough S, Philip PA, et al. Effect of selumetinib and MK-2206 vs oxaliplatin and fluorouracil in patients with metastatic pancreatic cancer after prior therapy: SWOG S1115 study randomized clinical trial. JAMA Oncol 2017;3:516522.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 205.

    Wang-Gillam A, Li CP, Bodoky G, et al. Nanoliposomal irinotecan with fluorouracil and folinic acid in metastatic pancreatic cancer after previous gemcitabine-based therapy (NAPOLI-1): a global, randomised, open-label, phase 3 trial. Lancet 2016;387:545557.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 206.

    Wang-Gillam A, Li C-P, Bodoky G, et al. Updated overall survival (OS) analysis of NAPOLI-1: Phase 3 study of nanoliposomal irinotecan (nal-IRI, MM-398), with or without 5-fluorouracil and leucovorin (5-FU/LV), vs 5-FU/LV in metastatic pancreatic cancer (mPAC) previously treated with gemcitabine (gem)-based therapy. ASCO Meeting Abstracts 2016;34:4126.

    • Crossref
    • Export Citation
  • 207.

    Yoo C, Hwang JY, Kim JE, et al. A randomised phase II study of modified FOLFIRI.3 vs modified FOLFOX as second-line therapy in patients with gemcitabine-refractory advanced pancreatic cancer. Br J Cancer 2009;101:16581663.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 208.

    Neuzillet C, Hentic O, Rousseau B, et al. FOLFIRI regimen in metastatic pancreatic adenocarcinoma resistant to gemcitabine and platinum-salts. World J Gastroenterol 2012;18:45334541.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 209.

    Zaniboni A, Aitini E, Barni S, et al. FOLFIRI as second-line chemotherapy for advanced pancreatic cancer: a GISCAD multicenter phase II study. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol 2012;69:16411645.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 210.

    Heinemann V, Vehling-Kaiser U, Waldschmidt D, et al. Gemcitabine plus erlotinib followed by capecitabine versus capecitabine plus erlotinib followed by gemcitabine in advanced pancreatic cancer: final results of a randomised phase 3 trial of the ‘Arbeitsgemeinschaft Internistische Onkologie’ (AIO-PK0104). Gut 2013;62:751759.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 211.

    Ribas A. Releasing the brakes on cancer immunotherapy. N Engl J Med 2015;373:14901492.

  • 212.

    Le DT, Uram JN, Wang H, et al. PD-1 blockade in tumors with mismatch-repair deficiency. N Engl J Med 2015;372:25092520.

  • 213.

    Le DT, Durham JN, Smith KN, et al. Mismatch repair deficiency predicts response of solid tumors to PD-1 blockade. Science 2017;357:409413.

  • 214.

    Marabelle A, Le DT, Ascierto PA, et al. Efficacy of pembrolizumab in patients with noncolorectal high microsatellite instability/mismatch repair-deficient cancer: results from the phase II KEYNOTE-158 study. J Clin Oncol 2020;38:110.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 215.

    Drilon A, Laetsch TW, Kummar S, et al. Efficacy of larotrectinib in TRK fusion-positive cancers in adults and children. N Engl J Med 2018;378:731739.

  • 216.

    FDA approves larotrectinib for solid tumors with NTRK gene fusions. 2018. Accessed March 10, 2021. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/drugs/fda-approves-larotrectinib-solid-tumors-ntrk-gene-fusions

  • 217.

    Hong DS, DuBois SG, Kummar S, et al. Larotrectinib in patients with TRK fusion-positive solid tumours: a pooled analysis of three phase 1/2 clinical trials. Lancet Oncol 2020;21:531540.

    • Crossref
    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation