Neuroendocrine Tumors, Version 1.2015

Authors:
Matthew H. Kulke
Search for other papers by Matthew H. Kulke in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Manisha H. Shah
Search for other papers by Manisha H. Shah in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Al B. Benson III
Search for other papers by Al B. Benson III in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Emily Bergsland
Search for other papers by Emily Bergsland in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Jordan D. Berlin
Search for other papers by Jordan D. Berlin in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Lawrence S. Blaszkowsky
Search for other papers by Lawrence S. Blaszkowsky in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Lyska Emerson
Search for other papers by Lyska Emerson in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Paul F. Engstrom
Search for other papers by Paul F. Engstrom in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Paul Fanta
Search for other papers by Paul Fanta in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Thomas Giordano
Search for other papers by Thomas Giordano in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD, PhD
,
Whitney S. Goldner
Search for other papers by Whitney S. Goldner in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Thorvardur R. Halfdanarson
Search for other papers by Thorvardur R. Halfdanarson in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Martin J. Heslin
Search for other papers by Martin J. Heslin in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Fouad Kandeel
Search for other papers by Fouad Kandeel in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD, PhD
,
Pamela L. Kunz
Search for other papers by Pamela L. Kunz in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Boris W. Kuvshinoff II
Search for other papers by Boris W. Kuvshinoff II in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD, MBA
,
Christopher Lieu
Search for other papers by Christopher Lieu in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Jeffrey F. Moley
Search for other papers by Jeffrey F. Moley in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Gitonga Munene
Search for other papers by Gitonga Munene in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Venu G. Pillarisetty
Search for other papers by Venu G. Pillarisetty in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Leonard Saltz
Search for other papers by Leonard Saltz in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Julie Ann Sosa
Search for other papers by Julie Ann Sosa in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Jonathan R. Strosberg
Search for other papers by Jonathan R. Strosberg in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Jean-Nicolas Vauthey
Search for other papers by Jean-Nicolas Vauthey in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Christopher Wolfgang
Search for other papers by Christopher Wolfgang in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD, PhD
,
James C. Yao
Search for other papers by James C. Yao in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 MD
,
Jennifer Burns
Search for other papers by Jennifer Burns in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
, and
Deborah Freedman-Cass
Search for other papers by Deborah Freedman-Cass in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
 PhD
Restricted access

Neuroendocrine tumors (NETs) comprise a broad family of tumors that may or may not be associated with symptoms attributable to hormonal hypersecretion. The NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology for Neuroendocrine Tumors discuss the diagnosis and management of both sporadic and hereditary NETs. This selection from the guidelines focuses on sporadic NETs of the pancreas, gastrointestinal tract, lung, and thymus.

  • Collapse
  • Expand
  • 1.

    Yao JC, Hassan M, Phan A et al.. One hundred years after “carcinoid”: epidemiology of and prognostic factors for neuroendocrine tumors in 35,825 cases in the United States. J Clin Oncol 2008;26:30633072.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 2.

    Tsikitis VL, Wertheim BC, Guerrero MA. Trends of incidence and survival of gastrointestinal neuroendocrine tumors in the United States: a SEER analysis. J Cancer 2012;3:292302.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 3.

    Marx S, Spiegel AM, Skarulis MC et al.. Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1: clinical and genetic topics. Ann Intern Med 1998;129:484494.

  • 4.

    Donis-Keller H, Dou S, Chi D et al.. Mutations in the RET proto-oncogene are associated with MEN 2A and FMTC. Hum Mol Genet 1993;2:851856.

  • 5.

    Anlauf M, Garbrecht N, Bauersfeld J et al.. Hereditary neuroendocrine tumors of the gastroenteropancreatic system. Virchows Arch 2007;451(Suppl 1):S2938.

  • 6.

    Larson AM, Hedgire SS, Deshpande V et al.. Pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors in patients with tuberous sclerosis complex. Clin Genet 2012;82:558563.

  • 7.

    Jenson RT, Norton JA. Carcinoid tumors and carcinoid syndrome. In: DeVita VT, Hellman S, Rosenberg SA, eds. Cancer: Principles and Practice of Oncology, Vol. 2. 6th edition. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 2001:18131826.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 8.

    Joynt KE, Moslehi JJ, Baughman KL. Paragangliomas: etiology, presentation, and management. Cardiol Rev 2009;17:159164.

  • 9.

    Klimstra DS, Arnold R, Capella C et al.. Neuroendocrine neoplasms of the pancreas. In: Bosman FT, Carneiro F, Hruban RH, Theise ND, eds. WHO Classification of Tumours of the Digestive System. Lyon: IARC; 2010:322326.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 10.

    Alexandraki KI, Grossman AB. The ectopic ACTH syndrome. Rev Endocr Metab Disord 2010;11:117126.

  • 11.

    Neary NM, Lopez-Chavez A, Abel BS et al.. Neuroendocrine ACTH-producing tumor of the thymus—experience with 12 patients over 25 years. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2012;97:22232230.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 12.

    Pasieka JL, McKinnon JG, Kinnear S et al.. Carcinoid syndrome symposium on treatment modalities for gastrointestinal carcinoid tumours: symposium summary. Can J Surg 2001;44:2532.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 13.

    Palaniswamy C, Frishman WH, Aronow WS. Carcinoid heart disease. Cardiol Rev 2012;20:167176.

  • 14.

    Choti MA, Bobiak S, Strosberg JR et al.. Prevalence of functional tumors in neuroendocrine carcinoma: an analysis from the NCCN NET database [abstract]. J Clin Oncol 2012;30(Suppl):Abstract 4126.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 15.

    Soga J, Yakuwa Y, Osaka M. Carcinoid syndrome: a statistical evaluation of 748 reported cases. J Exp Clin Cancer Res 1999;18:133141.

  • 16.

    Thorson AH. Studies on carcinoid disease. Acta Med Scand Suppl 1958;334:1132.

  • 17.

    Florez JC, Shepard JA, Kradin RL. Case records of the Massachusetts General Hospital. Case 17-2013. A 56-year-old woman with poorly controlled diabetes mellitus and fatigue. N Engl J Med 2013;368:21262136.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 18.

    Gilligan CJ, Lawton GP, Tang LH et al.. Gastric carcinoid tumors: the biology and therapy of an enigmatic and controversial lesion. Am J Gastroenterol 1995;90:338352.

  • 19.

    Saund MS, Al Natour RH, Sharma AM et al.. Tumor size and depth predict rate of lymph node metastasis and utilization of lymph node sampling in surgically managed gastric carcinoids. Ann Surg Oncol 2011;18:28262832.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 20.

    Oberg K, Kvols L, Caplin M et al.. Consensus report on the use of somatostatin analogues for the management of neuroendocrine tumors of the gastroenteropancreatic system. Ann Oncol 2004;15:966973.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 21.

    Moertel CG, Weiland LH, Nagorney DM, Dockerty MB. Carcinoid tumor of the appendix: treatment and prognosis. N Engl J Med 1987;317:16991701.

  • 22.

    Sandor A, Modlin IM. A retrospective analysis of 1570 appendiceal carcinoids. Am J Gastroenterol 1998;93:422428.

  • 23.

    Mullen JT, Savarese DM. Carcinoid tumors of the appendix: a population-based study. J Surg Oncol 2011;104:4144.

  • 24.

    Gleeson FC, Levy MJ, Dozois EJ et al.. Endoscopically identified well-differentiated rectal carcinoid tumors: impact of tumor size on the natural history and outcomes. Gastrointest Endosc 2014;80:144151.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 25.

    Soga J. Carcinoids of the rectum: an evaluation of 1271 reported cases. Surg Today 1997;27:112119.

  • 26.

    Yao JC, Lombard-Bohas C, Baudin E et al.. Daily oral everolimus activity in patients with metastatic pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors after failure of cytotoxic chemotherapy: a phase II trial. J Clin Oncol 2010;28:6976.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 27.

    Ter-Minassian M, Chan JA, Hooshmand SM et al.. Clinical presentation, recurrence, and survival in patients with neuroendocrine tumors: results from a prospective institutional database. Endocr Relat Cancer 2013;20:187196.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 28.

    Coskun H, Bostanci O, Dilege ME et al.. Carcinoid tumors of appendix: treatment and outcome. Ulus Travma Acil Cerrahi Derg 2006;12:150154.

  • 29.

    Murray SE, Lloyd RV, Sippel RS et al.. Postoperative surveillance of small appendiceal carcinoid tumors. Am J Surg 2014;207:342345; discussion 345.

  • 30.

    Shapiro R, Eldar S, Sadot E et al.. Appendiceal carcinoid at a large tertiary center: pathologic findings and long-term follow-up evaluation. Am J Surg 2011;201:805808.

  • 31.

    Cwikla JB, Buscombe JR, Caplin ME et al.. Diagnostic imaging of carcinoid metastases to the abdomen and pelvis. Med Sci Monit 2004;10(Suppl 3):916.

  • 32.

    Kaltsas G, Rockall A, Papadogias D et al.. Recent advances in radiological and radionuclide imaging and therapy of neuroendocrine tumours. Eur J Endocrinol 2004;151:1527.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 33.

    Glazer ES, Tseng JF, Al-Refaie W et al.. Long-term survival after surgical management of neuroendocrine hepatic metastases. HPB (Oxford) 2011;12:427433.

  • 34.

    Lesurtel M, Nagorney DM, Mazzaferro V et al.. When should a liver resection be performed in patients with liver metastases from neuroendocrine tumours? A systematic review with practice recommendations. HPB (Oxford) 2015;17:1722.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 35.

    Mayo SC, de Jong MC, Pulitano C et al.. Surgical management of hepatic neuroendocrine tumor metastasis: results from an international multi-institutional analysis. Ann Surg Oncol 2010;17:31293136.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 36.

    Saxena A, Chua TC, Perera M et al.. Surgical resection of hepatic metastases from neuroendocrine neoplasms: a systematic review. Surg Oncol 2012;21:e131141.

  • 37.

    Brentjens R, Saltz L. Islet cell tumors of the pancreas: the medical oncologist’s perspective. Surg Clin North Am 2001;81:527542.

  • 38.

    Janson ET, Oberg K. Long-term management of the carcinoid syndrome. Treatment with octreotide alone and in combination with alpha-interferon. Acta Oncol 1993;32:225229.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 39.

    Kvols LK, Moertel CG, O’Connell MJ et al.. Treatment of the malignant carcinoid syndrome. Evaluation of a long-acting somatostatin analogue. N Engl J Med 1986;315:663666.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 40.

    Khan MS, El-Khouly F, Davies P et al.. Long-term results of treatment of malignant carcinoid syndrome with prolonged release Lanreotide (Somatuline Autogel). Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2011;34:235242.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 41.

    O’Toole D, Ducreux M, Bommelaer G et al.. Treatment of carcinoid syndrome: a prospective crossover evaluation of lanreotide versus octreotide in terms of efficacy, patient acceptability, and tolerance. Cancer 2000;88:770776.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 42.

    Ruszniewski P, Ish-Shalom S, Wymenga M et al.. Rapid and sustained relief from the symptoms of carcinoid syndrome: results from an open 6-month study of the 28-day prolonged-release formulation of lanreotide. Neuroendocrinology 2004;80:244251.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 43.

    Wymenga AN, Eriksson B, Salmela PI et al.. Efficacy and safety of prolonged-release lanreotide in patients with gastrointestinal neuroendocrine tumors and hormone-related symptoms. J Clin Oncol 1999;17:1111.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 44.

    Vinik A, Wolin EM, Audry H et al.. ELECT: a phase 3 study of efficacy and safety of lanreotide autogel/depot (LAN) treatment for carcinoid syndrome in patients with neuroendocrine tumors (NETs) [abstract]. J Clin Oncol 2014;32(Suppl):Abstract 268.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 45.

    Anderson AS, Krauss D, Lang R. Cardiovascular complications of malignant carcinoid disease. Am Heart J 1997;134:693702.

  • 46.

    Jacobsen MB, Nitter-Hauge S, Bryde PE, Hanssen LE. Cardiac manifestations in mid-gut carcinoid disease. Eur Heart J 1995;16:263268.

  • 47.

    Bhattacharyya S, Toumpanakis C, Chilkunda D et al.. Risk factors for the development and progression of carcinoid heart disease. Am J Cardiol 2011;107:12211226.

  • 48.

    Rinke A, Muller HH, Schade-Brittinger C et al.. Placebo-controlled, double-blind, prospective, randomized study on the effect of octreotide LAR in the control of tumor growth in patients with metastatic neuroendocrine midgut tumors: a report from the PROMID Study Group. J Clin Oncol 2009;27:46564663.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 49.

    Arnold R, Wittenberg M, Rinke A et al.. Placebo controlled, double blind, prospective, randomized study on the effect of octreotide LAR in the control of tumor growth in patients with metastatic neuroendocrine midgut tumors (PROMID): results on long-term survival [abstract]. J Clin Oncol 2013;31(Suppl):Abstract 4030.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 50.

    Caplin ME, Pavel M, Cwikla JB et al.. Lanreotide in metastatic enteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumors. N Engl J Med 2014;371:224233.

  • 51.

    Johnston FM, Mavros MN, Herman JM, Pawlik TM. Local therapies for hepatic metastases. J Natl Compr Canc Netw 2013;11:153160.

  • 52.

    Jones NB, Shah MH, Bloomston M. Liver-directed therapies in patients with advanced neuroendocrine tumors. J Natl Compr Canc Netw 2012;10:765774.

  • 53.

    Kennedy A, Bester L, Salem R et al.. Role of hepatic intra-arterial therapies in metastatic neuroendocrine tumours (NET): guidelines from the NET-Liver-Metastases Consensus Conference. HPB (Oxford) 2015;17:2937.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 54.

    Lewis MA, Hubbard J. Multimodal liver-directed management of neuroendocrine hepatic metastases. Int J Hepatol 2011;2011:452343.

  • 55.

    Taner T, Atwell TD, Zhang L et al.. Adjunctive radiofrequency ablation of metastatic neuroendocrine cancer to the liver complements surgical resection. HPB (Oxford) 2013;15:190195.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 56.

    Liu DM, Kennedy A, Turner D et al.. Minimally invasive techniques in management of hepatic neuroendocrine metastatic disease. Am J Clin Oncol 2009;32:200215.

  • 57.

    Siperstein AE, Rogers SJ, Hansen PD, Gitomirsky A. Laparoscopic thermal ablation of hepatic neuroendocrine tumor metastases. Surgery 1997;122:11471154; discussion 1154–1145.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 58.

    Strosberg JR, Weber JM, Choi J et al.. A phase II clinical trial of sunitinib following hepatic transarterial embolization for metastatic neuroendocrine tumors. Ann Oncol 2012;23:23352341.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 59.

    Gates J, Hartnell GG, Stuart KE, Clouse ME. Chemoembolization of hepatic neoplasms: safety, complications, and when to worry. Radiographics 1999;19:399414.

  • 60.

    Hur S, Chung JW, Kim HC et al.. Survival outcomes and prognostic factors of transcatheter arterial chemoembolization for hepatic neuroendocrine metastases. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2013;24:947956; quiz 957.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 61.

    Ruszniewski P, Malka D. Hepatic arterial chemoembolization in the management of advanced digestive endocrine tumors. Digestion 2000;62(Suppl 1):7983.

  • 62.

    Devcic Z, Rosenberg J, Braat AJ et al.. The efficacy of hepatic 90Y resin radioembolization for metastatic neuroendocrine tumors: a meta-analysis. J Nucl Med 2014;55:14041410.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 63.

    Kalinowski M, Dressler M, Konig A et al.. Selective internal radiotherapy with Yttrium-90 microspheres for hepatic metastatic neuroendocrine tumors: a prospective single center study. Digestion 2009;79:137142.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 64.

    Kennedy AS, Dezarn WA, McNeillie P et al.. Radioembolization for unresectable neuroendocrine hepatic metastases using resin 90Y-microspheres: early results in 148 patients. Am J Clin Oncol 2008;31:271279.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 65.

    King J, Quinn R, Glenn DM et al.. Radioembolization with selective internal radiation microspheres for neuroendocrine liver metastases. Cancer 2008;113:921929.

  • 66.

    Memon K, Lewandowski RJ, Mulcahy MF et al.. Radioembolization for neuroendocrine liver metastases: safety, imaging, and long-term outcomes. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2012;83:887894.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 67.

    Murthy R, Kamat P, Nunez R et al.. Yttrium-90 microsphere radioembolotherapy of hepatic metastatic neuroendocrine carcinomas after hepatic arterial embolization. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2008;19:145151.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 68.

    Rhee TK, Lewandowski RJ, Liu DM et al.. 90Y Radioembolization for metastatic neuroendocrine liver tumors: preliminary results from a multi-institutional experience. Ann Surg 2008;247:10291035.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 69.

    Yao JC, Phan AT, Chang DZ et al.. Efficacy of RAD001 (everolimus) and octreotide LAR in advanced lowto intermediate-grade neuroendocrine tumors: results of a phase II study. J Clin Oncol 2008;26:43114318.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 70.

    Pavel ME, Hainsworth JD, Baudin E et al.. Everolimus plus octreotide long-acting repeatable for the treatment of advanced neuroendocrine tumours associated with carcinoid syndrome (RADIANT-2): a randomised, placebo-controlled, phase 3 study. Lancet 2011;378:20052012.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 71.

    Choueiri TK, Je Y, Sonpavde G et al.. Incidence and risk of treatment-related mortality in cancer patients treated with the mammalian target of rapamycin inhibitors. Ann Oncol 2013;24:20922097.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 72.

    Parithivel K, Ramaiya N, Jagannathan JP et al.. Everolimusand temsirolimus-associated enteritis: report of three cases. J Clin Oncol 2010;29:e404406.

  • 73.

    Subramaniam S, Zell JA, Kunz PL. Everolimus causing severe hypertriglyceridemia and acute pancreatitis. J Natl Compr Canc Netw 2013;11:59.

  • 74.

    Panzuto F, Rinzivillo M, Fazio N et al.. Real-world study of everolimus in advanced progressive neuroendocrine tumors. Oncologist 2014;19:966974.

  • 75.

    Paulson AS, Bergsland EK. Systemic therapy for advanced carcinoid tumors: where do we go from here? J Natl Compr Canc Netw 2012;10:785793.

  • 76.

    Medley L, Morel AN, Farrugia D et al.. Phase II study of single agent capecitabine in the treatment of metastatic non-pancreatic neuroendocrine tumours. Br J Cancer 2011;104:10671070.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 77.

    Bajetta E, Catena L, Procopio G et al.. Are capecitabine and oxaliplatin (XELOX) suitable treatments for progressing low-grade and high-grade neuroendocrine tumours? Cancer Chemother Pharmacol 2007;59:637642.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 78.

    Sun W, Lipsitz S, Catalano P et al.. Phase II/III study of doxorubicin with fluorouracil compared with streptozocin with fluorouracil or dacarbazine in the treatment of advanced carcinoid tumors: Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group Study E1281. J Clin Oncol 2005;23:48974904.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 79.

    Ekeblad S, Sundin A, Janson ET et al.. Temozolomide as monotherapy is effective in treatment of advanced malignant neuroendocrine tumors. Clin Cancer Res 2007;13:29862991.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 80.

    Fazio N, de Braud F, Delle Fave G, Oberg K. Interferon-alpha and somatostatin analogue in patients with gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine carcinoma: single agent or combination? Ann Oncol 2007;18:1319.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 81.

    Fjallskog ML, Sundin A, Westlin JE et al.. Treatment of malignant endocrine pancreatic tumors with a combination of alpha-interferon and somatostatin analogues. Med Oncol 2002;19:3542.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 82.

    Kolby L, Persson G, Franzen S, Ahren B. Randomized clinical trial of the effect of interferon alpha on survival in patients with disseminated midgut carcinoid tumours. Br J Surg 2003;90:687693.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 83.

    Faiss S, Pape UF, Bohmig M et al.. Prospective, randomized, multicenter trial on the antiproliferative effect of lanreotide, interferon alfa, and their combination for therapy of metastatic neuroendocrine gastroenteropancreatic tumors—the International Lanreotide and Interferon Alfa Study Group. J Clin Oncol 2003;21:26892696.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 84.

    Imhof A, Brunner P, Marincek N et al.. Response, survival, and long-term toxicity after therapy with the radiolabeled somatostatin analogue [90Y-DOTA]-TOC in metastasized neuroendocrine cancers. J Clin Oncol 2011;29:24162423.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 85.

    Krenning EP, Teunissen JJM, Valkema R et al.. Molecular radiotherapy with somatostatin analogues for (neuro-)endocrine tumors. J Endocrinol Invest 2005;28:146150.

  • 86.

    Kwekkeboom DJ, Bakker WH, Kam BL et al.. Treatment of patients with gastro-entero-pancreatic (GEP) tumours with the novel radiolabelled somatostatin analogue [177Lu-DOTA(0),Tyr3]octreotate. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2003;30:417422.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 87.

    Kwekkeboom DJ, Teunissen JJ, Bakker WH et al.. Radiolabeled somatostatin analogue [177Lu-DOTA0,Tyr3]octreotate in patients with endocrine gastroenteropancreatic tumors. J Clin Oncol 2005;23:27542762.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 88.

    Kwekkeboom DJ, Teunissen JJM, Kam BL et al.. Treatment of patients who have endocrine gastroenteropancreatic tumors with radiolabeled somatostatin analogues. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am 2007;21:561573.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 89.

    Kong G, Thompson M, Collins M et al.. Assessment of predictors of response and long-term survival of patients with neuroendocrine tumour treated with peptide receptor chemoradionuclide therapy (PRCRT). Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2014;41:18311844.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 90.

    Villard L, Romer A, Marincek N et al.. Cohort study of somatostatin-based radiopeptide therapy with [(90)Y-DOTA]-TOC versus [(90)Y-DOTA]-TOC plus [(177)Lu-DOTA]-TOC in neuroendocrine cancers. J Clin Oncol 2012;30:11001106.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 91.

    Horsch D, Ezziddin S, Haug A et al.. Peptide receptor radionuclide therapy for neuroendocrine tumors in Germany: first results of a multi-institutional cancer registry. Recent Results Cancer Res 2013;194:457465.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 92.

    Bushnell DLJ, O’Dorisio TM, O’Dorisio MS et al.. 90Y-edotreotide for metastatic carcinoid refractory to octreotide. J Clin Oncol 2010;28:16521659.

  • 93.

    Gulenchyn KY, Yao X, Asa SL et al.. Radionuclide therapy in neuroendocrine tumours: a systematic review. Clin Oncol (R Coll Radiol) 2012;24:294308.

  • 94.

    Bonaccorsi-Riani E, Apestegui C, Jouret-Mourin A et al.. Liver transplantation and neuroendocrine tumors: lessons from a single centre experience and from the literature review. Transpl Int 2010;23:668678.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 95.

    Gedaly R, Daily MF, Davenport D et al.. Liver transplantation for the treatment of liver metastases from neuroendocrine tumors: an analysis of the UNOS database. Arch Surg 2011;146:953958.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 96.

    Lehnert T. Liver transplantation for metastatic neuroendocrine carcinoma: an analysis of 103 patients. Transplantation 1998;66:13071312.

  • 97.

    Le Treut YP, Gregoire E, Belghiti J et al.. Predictors of long-term survival after liver transplantation for metastatic endocrine tumors: an 85-case French multicentric report. Am J Transplant 2008;8:12051213.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 98.

    Le Treut YP, Gregoire E, Klempnauer J et al.. Liver transplantation for neuroendocrine tumors in Europe-results and trends in patient selection: a 213-case European liver transplant registry study. Ann Surg 2013;257:807815.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 99.

    Rosenau J, Bahr MJ, von Wasielewski R et al.. Ki67, E-cadherin, and p53 as prognostic indicators of long-term outcome after liver transplantation for metastatic neuroendocrine tumors. Transplantation 2002;73:386394.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 100.

    Rossi RE, Burroughs AK, Caplin ME. Liver transplantation for unresectable neuroendocrine tumor liver metastases. Ann Surg Oncol 2014;21:23982405.

  • 101.

    Yao JC, Eisner MP, Leary C et al.. Population-based study of islet cell carcinoma. Ann Surg Oncol 2007;14:34923500.

  • 102.

    Moore FD, Scoinski MA, Joste NE. Endocrine tumors and malignancies. In: Skarin A, ed. Atlas of Diagnostic Oncology. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Science Limited; 2003.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 103.

    Halfdanarson TR, Rabe KG, Rubin J, Petersen GM. Pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors (PNETs): incidence, prognosis and recent trend toward improved survival. Ann Oncol 2008;19:17271733.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 104.

    Rehfeld JF, Federspiel B, Bardram L. A neuroendocrine tumor syndrome from cholecystokinin secretion. N Engl J Med 2013;368:11651166.

  • 105.

    Alexakis N, Neoptolemos JP. Pancreatic neuroendocrine tumours. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol 2008;22:183205.

  • 106.

    Kulke MH, Bendell J, Kvols L et al.. Evolving diagnostic and treatment strategies for pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors. J Hematol Oncol 2011;4:29.

  • 107.

    Bernini GP, Moretti A, Ferdeghini M et al.. A new human chromogranin ‘A’ immunoradiometric assay for the diagnosis of neuroendocrine tumours. Br J Cancer 2001;84:636642.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 108.

    Campana D, Nori F, Piscitelli L et al.. Chromogranin A: is it a useful marker of neuroendocrine tumors? J Clin Oncol 2007;25:19671973.

  • 109.

    Nehar D, Lombard-Bohas C, Olivieri S et al.. Interest of chromogranin A for diagnosis and follow-up of endocrine tumours. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2004;60:644652.

  • 110.

    Yao JC, Pavel M, Phan AT et al.. Chromogranin A and neuron-specific enolase as prognostic markers in patients with advanced pNET treated with everolimus. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2011;96:37413749.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 111.

    Jensen RT, Fraker DL. Zollinger-Ellison syndrome. Advances in treatment of gastric hypersecretion and the gastrinoma. JAMA 1994;271:14291435.

  • 112.

    Osefo N, Ito T, Jensen RT. Gastric acid hypersecretory states: recent insights and advances. Curr Gastroenterol Rep 2009;11:433441.

  • 113.

    Simmons LH, Guimaraes AR, Zukerberg LR. Case records of the Massachusetts General Hospital. Case 6-2013. A 54-year-old man with recurrent diarrhea. N Engl J Med 2013;368:757765.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 114.

    Rosch T, Lightdale CJ, Botet JF et al.. Localization of pancreatic endocrine tumors by endoscopic ultrasonography. N Engl J Med 1992;326:17211726.

  • 115.

    Doppman JL, Chang R, Fraker DL et al.. Localization of insulinomas to regions of the pancreas by intra-arterial stimulation with calcium. Ann Intern Med 1995;123:269273.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 116.

    Cryer PE, Axelrod L, Grossman AB et al.. Evaluation and management of adult hypoglycemic disorders: an Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2009;94:709728.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 117.

    Stehouwer CD, Lems WF, Fischer HR et al.. Aggravation of hypoglycemia in insulinoma patients by the long-acting somatostatin analogue octreotide (Sandostatin). Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 1989;121:3440.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 118.

    Pallais JC, Blake MA, Deshpande V. Case records of the Massachusetts General Hospital. Case 33-2012. A 34-year-old woman with episodic paresthesias and altered mental status after childbirth. N Engl J Med 2012;367:16371646.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 119.

    Lam S, Liew H, Khor HT et al.. VIPoma in a 37-year-old man. Lancet 2013;382:832.

  • 120.

    Kulke MH, Bergsland EK, Yao JC. Glycemic control in patients with insulinoma treated with everolimus. N Engl J Med 2009;360:195197.

  • 121.

    Lee LC, Grant CS, Salomao DR et al.. Small, nonfunctioning, asymptomatic pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors (PNETs): role for nonoperative management. Surgery 2012;152:965974.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 122.

    Strosberg JR, Cheema A, Kvols LK. Stage I nonfunctioning neuroendocrine tumors of the pancreas: surgery or surveillance? [abstract]. J Clin Oncol 2011;29(Suppl 4):Abstract 349.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 123.

    Cherenfant J, Stocker SJ, Gage MK et al.. Predicting aggressive behavior in nonfunctioning pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors. Surgery 2013;154:785793.

  • 124.

    Haynes AB, Deshpande V, Ingkakul T et al.. Implications of incidentally discovered, nonfunctioning pancreatic endocrine tumors: short-term and long-term patient outcomes. Arch Surg 2011;146:534538.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 125.

    Kuo EJ, Salem RR. Population-level analysis of pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors 2 cm or less in size. Ann Surg Oncol 2013;20:28152821.

  • 126.

    Ferrone CR, Tang LH, Tomlinson J et al.. Determining prognosis in patients with pancreatic endocrine neoplasms: can the WHO classification system be simplified? J Clin Oncol 2007;25:56095615.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 127.

    Parekh JR, Wang SC, Bergsland EK et al.. Lymph node sampling rates and predictors of nodal metastases in pancreatic neuroendocrine tumor resections: the UCSF experience with 149 patients. Pancreas 2012;41:840844.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 128.

    Tsutsumi K, Ohtsuka T, Mori Y et al.. Analysis of lymph node metastasis in pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors (PNETs) based on the tumor size and hormonal production. J Gastroenterol 2012;47:678685.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 129.

    Jean-Philippe A, Alexandre J, Christophe L et al.. Laparoscopic spleen-preserving distal pancreatectomy: splenic vessel preservation compared with the Warshaw technique. JAMA Surg 2013;148:246252.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 130.

    Su AP, Ke NW, Zhang Y et al.. Is laparoscopic approach for pancreatic insulinomas safe? Results of a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Surg Res 2014;186:126134.

  • 131.

    Eldor R, Glaser B, Fraenkel M et al.. Glucagonoma and the glucagonoma syndrome - cumulative experience with an elusive endocrine tumour. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2011;74:593598.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 132.

    Castro PG, de Leon AM, Trancon JG et al.. Glucagonoma syndrome: a case report. J Med Case Rep 2011;5:402.

  • 133.

    Boninsegna L, Panzuto F, Partelli S et al.. Malignant pancreatic neuroendocrine tumour: lymph node ratio and Ki67 are predictors of recurrence after curative resections. Eur J Cancer 2012;48:16081615.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 134.

    Casadei R, Ricci C, Pezzilli R et al.. Are there prognostic factors related to recurrence in pancreatic endocrine tumors? Pancreatology 2010;10:3338.

  • 135.

    Kim SJ, Kim JW, Oh DY et al.. Clinical course of neuroendocrine tumors with different origins (the pancreas, gastrointestinal tract, and lung). Am J Clin Oncol 2011;35:549556.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 136.

    Strosberg JR, Cheema A, Weber JM et al.. Relapse-free survival in patients with nonmetastatic, surgically resected pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors: an analysis of the AJCC and ENETS staging classifications. Ann Surg 2012;256:321325.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 137.

    De Jong MC, Farnell MB, Sclabas G et al.. Liver-directed therapy for hepatic metastases in patients undergoing pancreaticoduodenectomy: a dual-center analysis. Ann Surg 2010;252:142148.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 138.

    Yao JC, Shah MH, Ito T et al.. Everolimus for advanced pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors. N Engl J Med 2011;364:514523.

  • 139.

    Pommier RF, Wolin EM, Panneerselvam A et al.. Impact of prior chemotherapy on progression-free survival in patients (pts) with advanced pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors (pNET): results from the RADIANT-3 trial [abstract]. J Clin Oncol 2011;29(Suppl):Abstract 4103.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 140.

    Shah MH, Lombard-Bohas C, Ito T et al.. Everolimus in patients with advanced pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors (pNET): impact of somatostatin analogue use on progression-free survival in the RADIANT-3 trial [abstract]. J Clin Oncol 2011;29(Suppl):Abstract 4010.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 141.

    Raymond E, Dahan L, Raoul JL et al.. Sunitinib malate for the treatment of pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors. N Engl J Med 2011;364:501513.

  • 142.

    Raymond E, Niccoli P, Raoul J et al.. Updated overall survival (OS) and progression-free survival (PFS) by blinded independent central review (BICR) of sunitinib (SU) versus placebo (PBO) for patients (Pts) with advanced unresectable pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors (NET) [abstract]. J Clin Oncol 2011;29(Suppl):Abstract 4008.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 143.

    Richards CJ, Je Y, Schutz FA et al.. Incidence and risk of congestive heart failure in patients with renal and nonrenal cell carcinoma treated with sunitinib. J Clin Oncol 2011;29:34503456.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 144.

    Safety information: Sutent (sunitinib malate) capsules. US Food and Drug Administration Web site. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/Safety/MedWatch/SafetyInformation/ucm224050.htm. Accessed November 10, 2014.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 145.

    Schutz FA, Je Y, Richards CJ, Choueiri TK. Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials for the incidence and risk of treatment-related mortality in patients with cancer treated with vascular endothelial growth factor tyrosine kinase inhibitors. J Clin Oncol 2012;30:871877.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 146.

    Moertel CG, Lefkopoulo M, Lipsitz S et al.. Streptozocin-doxorubicin, streptozocin-fluorouracil or chlorozotocin in the treatment of advanced islet-cell carcinoma. N Engl J Med 1992;326:519523.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 147.

    Kouvaraki MA, Ajani JA, Hoff P et al.. Fluorouracil, doxorubicin, and streptozocin in the treatment of patients with locally advanced and metastatic pancreatic endocrine carcinomas. J Clin Oncol 2004;22:47624771.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 148.

    Chan JA, Stuart K, Earle CC et al.. Prospective study of bevacizumab plus temozolomide in patients with advanced neuroendocrine tumors. J Clin Oncol 2012;30:29632968.

  • 149.

    Kulke MH, Stuart K, Enzinger PC et al.. Phase II study of temozolomide and thalidomide in patients with metastatic neuroendocrine tumors. J Clin Oncol 2006;24:401406.

  • 150.

    Kulke MH, Hornick JL, Frauenhoffer C et al.. O6-methylguanine DNA methyltransferase deficiency and response to temozolomide-based therapy in patients with neuroendocrine tumors. Clin Cancer Res 2009;15:338345.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 151.

    Strosberg JR, Fine RL, Choi J et al.. First-line chemotherapy with capecitabine and temozolomide in patients with metastatic pancreatic endocrine carcinomas. Cancer 2011;117:268275.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 152.

    Fine RL, Gulati AP, Krantz BA et al.. Capecitabine and temozolomide (CAPTEM) for metastatic, well-differentiated neuroendocrine cancers: the Pancreas Center at Columbia University experience. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol 2013;71:663670.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 153.

    Saif MW, Kaley K, Brennan M et al.. A retrospective study of capecitabine/temozolomide (CAPTEM) regimen in the treatment of metastatic pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors (pNETs) after failing previous therapy. JOP 2013;14:498501.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 154.

    Chan JA, Blaszkowsky L, Stuart K et al.. A prospective, phase 1/2 study of everolimus and temozolomide in patients with advanced pancreatic neuroendocrine tumor. Cancer 2013;119:32123218.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 155.

    Bloomston M, Muscarella P, Shah MH et al.. Cytoreduction results in high perioperative mortality and decreased survival in patients undergoing pancreatectomy for neuroendocrine tumors of the pancreas. J Gastrointest Surg 2006;10:13611370.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 156.

    Gomez D, Malik HZ, Al-Mukthar A et al.. Hepatic resection for metastatic gastrointestinal and pancreatic neuroendocrine tumours: outcome and prognostic predictors. HPB (Oxford) 2007;9:345351.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 157.

    Pederzoli P, Falconi M, Bonora A et al.. Cytoreductive surgery in advanced endocrine tumours of the pancreas. Ital J Gastroenterol Hepatol 1999;31(Suppl):S207212.

  • 158.

    Perry LJ, Stuart K, Stokes KR, Clouse ME. Hepatic arterial chemoembolization for metastatic neuroendocrine tumors. Surgery 1994;116:11111116.

  • 159.

    Mathe Z, Tagkalos E, Paul A et al.. Liver transplantation for hepatic metastases of neuroendocrine pancreatic tumors: a survival-based analysis. Transplantation 2011;91:575582.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 160.

    Polish A, Vergo MT, Agulnik M. Management of neuroendocrine tumors of unknown origin. J Natl Compr Canc Netw 2011;9:13971402.

Metrics

All Time Past Year Past 30 Days
Abstract Views 0 0 0
Full Text Views 6944 2302 122
PDF Downloads 3528 777 75
EPUB Downloads 0 0 0